The Qing Dynasty of China, which lasted from 1644 to 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China and is considered a conquest dynasty. It was founded by the Manchu, an ethnic minority from the Manchuria region. The Manchu had previously lived outside the Great Wall of China during the Ming Dynasty. However, in 1644, they captured Beijing, leading to the suicide of the last Ming emperor, Chongzhen. The conquest of the remaining Ming strongholds continued until 1683, costing up to 25 million lives.
Once the areas controlled by the Ming Dynasty were consolidated, the Qing Dynasty faced further troubles. One such conflict was the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, where seven generals rebelled against Qing authority because they did not receive the same feudal rights they had enjoyed under the Ming. The Qing victory over this revolt secured their control, which was followed by the Ten Great Campaigns of Emperor Qianlong from the 1750s to the 1790s. These campaigns expanded Qing control into Inner Asia, creating a map of China’s territory that closely resembles its present-day borders.
The Qing Dynasty reached its peak during Emperor Qianlong’s lengthy reign, which ended in 1796. At this time, a third of the world’s population was under Qing control, making it one of the largest empires ever seen. It also had the world’s largest economy. During this period, Chinese society and culture flourished. There was significant population growth and increasing mobility within the population. The social structure was based on a Confucian moral system that favored men and followed a patrilineal kinship structure, commonly known as the family clan.
In the arts, the Kangxi Dictionary was published, along with the Siku Quanshu, the largest collection of Chinese writings in history. Calligraphy and painting also saw a flourishing period. The growing population and mobility stimulated the economy, leading to a conversion to a market economy. The influx of silver, urbanization, the rise of market towns, and international trade further boosted the economy. There were also notable scientific advances in astronomy, mathematics, and ceramics production.
However, by the late Qing period, the dynasty struggled to respond to the Industrial Revolution in the West, leading to significant challenges. The Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), a Christian-led movement, weakened the Qing internally and at one point controlled up to a third of China. This was followed by the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars, the Nian Rebellion, the Dungan Revolt, and the Pantai Rebellion. Although these rebellions were ultimately suppressed, they took a heavy toll on the population, economy, and social stability, severely weakening the legitimacy of the Qing Dynasty.
Externally, the Qing Dynasty was weakened by the Opium Wars with Great Britain, resulting in the loss of Hong Kong and increasing foreign influence along China’s eastern coast. This further undermined the domestic economy.
In 1900, the Boxer Rebellion, a reaction to foreign influence, occurred. This was followed by a revolutionary movement inspired by figures like Liang Qichao and Sun Yat-sen. The Wuchang Uprising spread throughout China, and on January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was proclaimed, marking the end of the Qing Dynasty.
