Spain, located on the Iberian Peninsula in the southwest corner of Europe, spans an area of 505,990 square kilometers and has a population of over 47.4 million. Its territories include the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla in Africa.
Early History
Before the Roman conquests, the Iberians and the Celts were the largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula. By 19 BC, the Romans had fully occupied the region, calling it Hispania, from which the modern name “Spain” originates. The Romans restored cities and established new municipalities, bringing a period of economic prosperity. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Spain endured numerous invasions by Germanic tribes, leading to the loss of Roman rule and the formation of new Germanic kingdoms.
In the early 8th century, the Umayyad Caliphate expanded into nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula, ending the Visigothic Kingdom. The region became known as Al-Andalus. By the 15th century, several Christian kingdoms had emerged in the north, while the southwestern part developed into the Kingdom of Portugal.
The Spanish Empire
The Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, united their crowns through marriage in 1492. This union led to the conquest of the last Muslim stronghold, Granada, ending 781 years of Islamic rule in Iberia. That same year, Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the New World marked the beginning of the Spanish Empire — the first global empire — with Spanish conquistadors exploring the Americas, Oceania, Africa, and Asia.
In 1516, the Habsburg dynasty took control of Spain under Emperor Charles V. Under the rule of King Philip II, Spain reached its cultural golden age and territorial peak. Spain defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. The late 16th century also saw the incorporation of the Portuguese Empire into the Iberian Union, though it was later separated after the Portuguese Restoration War.
Decline of the Spanish Empire
In the 17th century, Spain’s empire began to decline, unable to suppress the Dutch Revolt during the Eighty Years’ War, which contributed to a weakening of Habsburg power. The War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714) led to the installation of the Bourbon dynasty, with Philip V ascending to the throne. The 18th century also brought the Enlightenment, which spurred economic recovery and political reforms.
Napoleonic Spain and the Wars of Independence
In 1793, Spain fought against Napoleonic France as part of the First Coalition, leading to the loss of much of Hispaniola. In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain, dethroning King Ferdinand VII and installing his brother Joseph as king, transforming Spain into a French puppet state. This led to the Spanish War of Independence, ending in 1814 with the retreat of French forces and the restoration of Ferdinand VII. However, Spain soon lost most of its colonies in the Americas through the Spanish-American Wars of Independence.
20th Century: The Spanish Civil War and Franco’s Dictatorship
After the death of Ferdinand VII, Queen Isabella II’s reign sparked the First Carlist War between her supporters and those loyal to Prince Carlos. The Glorious Revolution of 1868 forced Isabella’s abdication, and the country briefly had a foreign monarch, Prince Amadeus of Savoy. However, his abdication led to the formation of the First Spanish Republic. A military coup in 1874 restored the Bourbon monarchy under Alfonso XII. After the Spanish-American War, Spain lost its last major colonies, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
In 1931, after the deposition of King Alfonso XIII, Spain became a republic again. A civil war broke out in 1936 between the Republicans, supported by the Soviet Union and Mexico, and the Nationalists, supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The Nationalists, led by General Francisco Franco, emerged victorious in 1939, establishing a dictatorship that lasted until Franco’s death in 1975.
Modern Spain
After Franco’s death, King Juan Carlos I played a key role in transitioning Spain to democracy, culminating in the 1978 Constitution. Spain became a member of the European Union and adopted the euro in 2002, experiencing rapid economic growth in the early 2000s. After King Juan Carlos I’s abdication in 2014, his son, Felipe VI, became the current king.
Today, Spain is a high-income country with an advanced economy and is a leader in organ transplants and donation. It is a member of numerous international organizations, including the United Nations, the European Union, the Eurozone, NATO, and the World Trade Organization.
